The Nuremberg Trials

The Nuremberg Trials were a series of trials that occurred in post-World War II Germany to provide a platform for justice against accused Nazi war criminals.  The first attempt to punish the perpetrators was conducted by the International Military Tribunal (IMT) in the German city of Nuremberg, beginning on November 20, 1945. On trial were 24 of Nazi Germany’s major war criminals, including Hermann Goering, Martin Bormann, Julius Streicher, and Albert Speer.  Of the 22 that were ultimately tried, 12 were sentenced to death. The term â€Å"Nuremberg Trials† would eventually include this original trial of Nazi leaders as well as 12 subsequent trials that lasted until 1948.   The Holocaust Other War Crimes During World War II, the Nazis perpetrated an unprecedented reign of hatred against Jews and others deemed undesirable by the Nazi state.  This time period, known as the Holocaust, resulted in the deaths of six million Jews and five million others, including Roma and Sinti (Gypsies), the handicapped, Poles, Russian POWs, Jehovah’s witnesses, and political dissidents.   Victims were interned in concentration camps and also killed in death camps or by other means, such as mobile killing squads.  A small number of individuals survived these horrors but their lives were changed forever by the horrors inflicted upon them by the Nazi State. Crimes against individuals deemed undesirable were not the only charges being levied against the Germans in the post-war era. World War II saw an additional 50 million civilians killed throughout the war and many countries blamed the German military for their deaths. Some of these deaths were part of the new â€Å"total war tactics,† yet others were specifically targeted, such as the massacre of Czech civilians in Lidice and the death of Russian POWs at the Katyn Forest Massacre.  Ã‚   Should There Be a Trial or Just Hang Them? In the months following liberation, many military officers and Nazi officials were held in prisoner of war camps throughout the four Allied zones of Germany.  Ã‚  The countries that administrated those zones (Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States) began to discuss the best way to handle the post-war treatment of those who were suspected of war crimes.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of England, initially felt that all those who were alleged to have committed war crimes should be hanged.  The Americans, French, and Soviets felt that trials were necessary and worked to convince Churchill of the importance of these proceedings.   Once Churchill assented, a decision was made to move forward with the establishment of the International Military Tribunal that would be convened in the city of Nuremberg in the fall of 1945. The Major Players of the Nuremberg Trial The Nuremberg Trials officially began with the first proceedings, which opened on November 20, 1945.  The trial was held in the Palace of Justice in the German city of Nuremberg, which had played host to major Nazi Party rallies during the Third Reich.  The city was also the namesake of the infamous 1935 Nuremberg race laws levied against Jews. The International Military Tribunal was composed of a judge and an alternate judge from each of the four main Allied Powers.  The judges and alternates were as follows: United States – Frances Biddle (Main) and John Parker (Alternate)Britain – Sir Geoffrey Lawrence (Main) (President Judge) and Sir Norman Birkett (Alternate)France – Henri Donnedieu de Vabres (Main) and Robert Falco (Alternate)Soviet Union –Major  General Iona Nikitchenko (Main) and Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Volchkov  (Alternate) The prosecution was led by U.S.  Supreme Court Justice, Robert Jackson.  Ã‚  Ã‚  He was joined by Britain’s Sir Hartley Shawcross, France’s Francois de Menthon (eventually replaced by Frenchman Auguste Champetier de Ribes), and the Soviet Union’s Roman Rudenko, a Soviet Lieutenant-General.   Jackson’s opening statement set the somber yet progressive tone for the trial and its unprecedented nature.  His brief opening address spoke of the importance of the trial, not only for the restoration of Europe but also for its lasting impact on the future of justice in the world.  He also mentioned the need to educate the world about the horrors perpetrated during the war and felt that the trial would provide a platform to accomplish this task. Each defendant was permitted to have representation, either from a group of court-appointed defense attorneys or a defense attorney of the defendant’s choosing.   Evidence vs. The Defense This first trial lasted a total of ten months.  The prosecution built its case largely around evidence compiled by the Nazis themselves, as they had carefully documented many of their misdeeds.  Witnesses to the atrocities were also brought to the stand, as were the accused.   The defense cases were primarily centered around the concept of the â€Å"Fuhrerprinzip† (Fuhrer principle).  According to this concept, the accused were following orders issued by Adolf Hitler, and the penalty for not following those orders was death.  Since Hitler, himself, was no longer alive to invalidate these claims, the defense was hoping that it would carry weight with the judicial panel.   Some of the defendants also claimed that the tribunal itself had no legal standing due to its unprecedented nature. The Charges As the Allied Powers worked to gather evidence, they also had to determine who should be included in the first round of proceedings.  Ã‚  It was ultimately determined that 24 defendants would be charged and put on trial beginning in November 1945; these were some of the most notorious of Nazi’s war criminals. The accused would be indicted on one or more of the following counts:1.  Crimes of Conspiracy:  The accused was alleged to have participated in the creation and/or implementation of a joint plan or conspired to assist those in charge of executing a joint plan whose goal involved crimes against the peace. 2.  Crimes Against the Peace:  The accused was alleged to have committed acts that including planning for, preparation of, or initiation of aggressive warfare. 3.  War Crimes:  The accused allegedly violated previously established rules of warfare, including the killing of civilians, POWs, or malicious destruction of civilian property. 4.  Crimes Against Humanity:  The accused was alleged to have committed acts of deportation, enslavement, torture, murder, or other inhumane acts against civilians before or during the war. Defendants on Trial and Their Sentences A total of 24 defendants were originally slated to be put on trial during this initial Nuremberg trial, but only 22 were actually tried (Robert Ley had committed suicide and Gustav Krupp von Bohlen was deemed unfit to stand trial).  Of the 22, one wasn’t in custody;  Martin Bormann (Nazi Party Secretary) was charged in absentia.  (It was later discovered that Bormann had died in May 1945.) Although the list of defendants was long, two key individuals were missing.  Both Adolf Hitler and his propaganda minister, Joseph Goebbels, had committed suicide as the war was coming to an end.  It was decided that there was enough evidence regarding their deaths, unlike Bormann’s, that they were not placed on trial. The trial resulted in a total of 12 death sentences, all of which were administered on October 16, 1946, with one exception -- Herman Goering committed suicide by cyanide the night before the hangings were to take place.  Three of the accused were sentenced to life in prison. Four individuals were sentenced to jail terms ranging from ten to twenty years.  An additional three individuals were acquitted of all charges. Name Position Found Guilty of Counts Sentenced Action Taken Martin Bormann (in absentia) Deputy Fà ¼hrer 3,4 Death Was missing at time of trial. Later it was discovered Bormann had died in 1945. Karl Dà ¶nitz Supreme Commander of the Navy (1943) and German Chancellor 2,3 10 Years in Prison Served time. Died in 1980. Hans Frank Governor-General of Occupied Poland 3,4 Death Hanged on October 16, 1946. Wilhelm Frick Foreign Minister of the Interior 2,3,4 Death Hanged on October 16, 1946. Hans Fritzsche Head of the Radio Division of the Propaganda Ministry Not Guilty Acquitted In 1947, sentenced to 9 years in work camp; released after 3 years. Died in 1953. Walther Funk President of the Reichsbank (1939) 2,3,4 Life in Prison Early release in 1957. Died in 1960. Hermann Gà ¶ring Reich Marshal All Four Death Committed suicide on October 15, 1946 (three hours before he was to be executed). Rudolf Hess Deputy to the Fà ¼hrer 1,2 Life in Prison Died in prison on August 17, 1987. Alfred Jodl Chief of the Operations Staff of the Armed Forces All Four Death Hanged on October 16, 1946. In 1953, a German appeals court posthumously found Jodl not guilty of breaking international law. Ernst Kaltenbrunner Chief of the Security Police, SD, and RSHA 3,4 Death Chief of the Security Police, SD, and RSHA. Wilhelm Keitel Chief of the High Command of the Armed Forces All Four Death Requested to be shot as a soldier. Request denied. Hanged on October 16, 1946. Konstantin von Neurath Minister of Foreign Affairs and Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia All Four 15 Years in Prison Early release in 1954. Died in 1956. Franz von Papen Chancellor (1932) Not Guilty Acquitted In 1949, a German court sentenced Papen to 8 years in work camp; time was considered already served. Died in 1969. Erich Raeder Supreme Commander of the Navy (1928-1943) 2,3,4 Life in Prison Early release in 1955. Died in 1960. Joachim von Ribbentrop Reich Foreign Minister All Four Death Hanged on October 16, 1946. Alfred Rosenberg Party Philosopher and Reich Minister for the Eastern Occupied Area All Four Death Party Philosopher and Reich Minister for the Eastern Occupied Area Fritz Sauckel Plenipotentiary for Labor Allocation 2,4 Death Hanged on October 16, 1946. Hjalmar Schacht Minister of Economics and President of the Reichsbank (1933-1939) Not Guilty Acquitted Denazification court sentenced Schacht to 8 years in a work camp; released in 1948. Died in 1970. Baldur von Schirach Fà ¼hrer of the Hitler Youth 4 20 Years in Prison Served his time. Died in 1974. Arthur Seyss-Inquart Minister of the Interior and Reich Governor of Austria 2,3,4 Death Minister of the Interior and Reich Governor of Austria Albert Speer Minister of Armaments and War Production 3,4 20 Years Served his time. Died in 1981. Julius Streicher Founder of Der Stà ¼rmer 4 Death Hanged on October 16, 1946. Subsequent Trials at Nuremberg Although the initial trial held at Nuremberg is the most famous, it was not the only trial held there.  The Nuremberg Trials also included a series of twelve trials held in the Palace of Justice following the conclusion of the initial trial.  Ã‚   The judges in the subsequent trials were all American, as the other Allied powers wished to focus on the massive task of rebuilding needed after World War II. Additional trials in the series included: The Doctor’s TrialThe Milch TrialThe Judge’s TrialThe Pohl TrialThe Flick TrialThe IG Farben TrialThe Hostages TrialThe RuSHA TrialThe Einsatzgruppen TrialThe Krupp TrialThe Ministries TrialThe High Command Trial The Legacy of Nuremberg The Nuremberg Trials were unprecedented in many ways. They were the first to attempt to hold government leaders responsible for crimes committed while implementing their policies. They were the first to share the horrors of the Holocaust with the world on a large scale. The Nuremberg Trials also established the principal that one could not escape justice by merely claiming to have been following orders of a government entity. In relation to war crimes and crimes against humanity, the Nuremberg Trials would have a profound impact on the future of justice. They set the standards for judging the actions of other nations in future wars and genocides, ultimately paving the way for the foundation of the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court, which are based at The Hague, Netherlands.

The Rights Of The United States - 2558 Words

During class, a topic was brought up that was very interesting and needed to be further investigated and researched. The topic is the rights of artists in the United States and what laws have been passed to deal with them, lawsuits that have occurred, and what the artists themselves think about the different rights. There has been a battle over copyright, moral rights, and resale rights of artists in the United States. Copyrights are basic rights that are given by acts that have been passed and they protect any creative works. Moral rights are trickier and are not as clearly defined. Resale rights are interesting to discuss because some artists have differing opinions, with each other and with the government officials. The rights of†¦show more content†¦Some artists also have the rights of attribution and integrity, meaning they can claim authorship and prevent the use of their name for works that are not theirs. There are different time constraints for a work to be copyrigh t-protected in the United States according to the Artists Rights Society. They also explained that any changes in copyright terms have occurred over the years, but now there is a total of 95 years of copyright protection of works published before January 1, 1978, and a term of the lifetime of the artist plus 70 years for works published after January 1, 1978. The term of copyright protection is different from country to country and depends on what the individual nations decide to do. On the â€Å"Copyright Basics† page of Artists Rights Society, they state that in 1994, the European Union, as a whole, established a term of the lifetime of the artist plus 70 years. Understanding the background information about copyright in the United States is helpful when discussing the specific issues right for artists. The moral rights of artists are somewhat difficult to explain because they are similar to copyrights. As specified by the College Art Association, â€Å"Copyright is seen a s a property right, one that creates economic incentives for authors to create works by giving them exclusive rights to control their work†¦By exploiting these rights, copyright owners can, if they are fortunate, earn an income.† Because a copyright is on the property, it ensures that the

The Nature of Construction Problems Past and Present Free Essays

Abstraction: This paper aims at deducing a comprehensive apprehension refering to the different building troubles that have been faced in the yesteryear and are being faced now in the present besides. It provides a graphic analysis of why the jobs were faced, the nature of the jobs and how they were dealt with. It has been a long clip since the first origin of architectural thoughts that had crept into our ancestors’ heads. We will write a custom essay sample on The Nature of Construction Problems: Past and Present or any similar topic only for you Order Now Right from the Stone Age, adult male has really been into this act of building material for doing his life easy. At the really occasion of the Metal Age, he got a farther encouragement with the coming of new stuffs and building techniques. Furthermore, came the times when architecture was at its extremum. Everywhere in the universe there was ardor to build constructions that non merely made life comfy for adult male, but besides soothed his eyes. The classical orders of the Greeks packed the clout of functioning as better structural members along with being a ocular dainty. The Romans had been articulate in building an efficient system of H2O supply in the signifier of a series of arches together being called as aquaducts. It still stands as an illustration people look up to plan urban infinites. Egyptians were no less. They were meticulously building pyramids and mortuary graves that were manner beyond the human graduated table. They had designed the first signifiers of conveyer sy stems in edifice building. Similarly, India saw the building of a batch of architectural admirations. Right from the building of the massive rock constructions of the Ajanta-Ellora caves and the temples of Mahabalipuram to the Islamic constructions of Taj Mahal and the Humayun’s grave it had been a fantastic spring in the signifier of architectural advancement. Finally came the times of contentions about architecture when Gustav Eiffel proposed the building of an all metal construction now called the Eiffel tower. There was a batch of noise about the fact that how it would eventually look when it was constructed in Paris. Many people said that it might turn out to be a cicatrix on the face of the metropolis. But, now fortuitously it is known as the first thing that helps us place the metropolis of Paris. There have besides been contentions about Zaha Hadid’s designs. She is one of the innovator designers every bit far as the usage of fluidic signifiers is concerned. He r designs have about ever been at the helm of unfavorable judgment by the senior designers of her times. But, she has been articulate in put to deathing her ain designs. Similarly, in the recent times Frank O’ Gehry had faced a batch of challenges in conveying up his work called Bilbao museum. He has been criticised like snake pit up to the degree of being called the mad designer. Now as we come up to the fact of such advancement in the field of building, can we deny that there have been no troubles in the building of these age old constructions? No will be the reply. As we go back to the times when the massive rock constructions of the Kailasa temple was constructed, we get to cognize that no good engineering was available at that clip. However, they have managed to really do it possible to organize a monolithic temple out of a individual stone. Imagine that how the individual who started the building, really merely used a chisel and a cock to construct such a immense temple. It is said that he started from the top and maintain on cheating till the underside. It is apparent that this fantastic building must hold taken a long clip to come up. But, it has non been constructed by a individual sculpturer. Imagine the trouble in go throughing on the same cognition about the construction to so many craftsmans over the ages. There might hold been several alterations made to this temple construction during the building. This must hold made it even more hard for the sculpturers. Now raises the inquiry of pull offing the waste that was generated in this pr ocedure. How were all the cut out rocks used? Yes, they were used to do roads and for pety buildings. But wasn’t it truly hard to pull off these heavy multitudes? Yes, it must hold been boring. A similar construction had come up antecedently. The Konark temple in Bhubaneshwar, Orissa had a immense part in raising the architectural gustatory sensation of the people of the state. In this building, they used the method of building sand inclines as it was being constructed towards the top terminal. This had really ensured that the construction didn’t acquire decayed during the building procedure. However, this construction had made usage of a immense pole at the Centre in the signifier of a magnet that gave the monolithic rock construction all its strength. This had been acquired by the British during their reign in our state. But, subsequently on what it was used for cipher knows. Just conceive of how that immense magnet was made to stand merely by the usage of really bas ic tools. This speaks of the trouble in building constructions belonging to the typology of rock temples. Now, when the importance of Constantinople came into being, there was a sudden demand for the building of several public edifices. At that clip there was a immense recession in the field of building in Europe. There was a deficit of resources, financess, designers and even laborers. This thing gave rise to a new signifier of architecture. This signifier of architecture came to be known as Polymath Architecture. In this signifier of architecture the bing edifices were used to construct several other edifices. The Roman basilicas were used to construct the Basilican churches that formed the footing of Christianity. The columns of the condemned edifices were really truncated to acquire a unvarying size. As a consequence, the edifices were holding a size really near to the human graduated table. Explicitly or intentionally, this signifier of architecture happened to be more close to people. Even the foundations of several edifices were used to run into the demands of the times. The rotun da edifices were used to used to construct baptismal fonts when the inquiry of kid baptism came into being. These infinites required a sort of radiating edifice program in order to suit the needed activity. So, the inaccessibility of resources at that clip was addressed in such a manner. Now, when we come to building of edifices that are built with the on public money, the inquiry of minimal art comes into being. The use of minimal sum of resource and financess comes into being. Taking the illustration of a instance, when an designer is given undertaking of planing a public edifice, he has to do certain that he does non raise the cost of the edifice to the tallness of doing it impracticable. Presents, in instance of building of public edifices, the factor of stamp dads up. The individual coming up with the most disposed design within the least of cost frame normally gets the undertaking. Such a instance can be taken up when it comes to the Bilbao museum. It was designed by Frank O’ Gehry. He had gone through the unfavorable judgment of the full universe because of his design. His design was so complex that it made usage of aircraft design package. He had really gone to the point of overdriving resources. The frames of the edifice were made utilizing thick stee l subdivisions. A big bed of cloth was used to cover the edifice. Above this a bed of Ti sheets were used. Around twenty four 1000 square metres of such were used. As a consequence of this, he was criticised over the fact that a similar functionality and aesthetics was accomplishable with lesser usage of resources. But, he had paid no attentiveness to what the people said. He has a construct of a fish merely because he had memories of traveling to a fish market with his grandmother. This obscure justification brought about a batch of negotiations throughout the universe. Fortunately, the Ti monetary values had gone down at that point of clip. So, he had the privilege of non acquiring the undertaking cancelled. When residential undertakings are taken into consideration, there are several pety issues that come up. Fundss remain limited in most instances. There have been instances when building of a individual house has gone through a ceasework period of more than a twelvemonth merely due to the deficiency of financess. Other spiritual issues play a critical function in our state when it comes to building of abodes specially. Several people really back out when the designer is loath to listen to his specifications about how the edifice should be. Industrial edifices have challenges that are wholly different as compared to other edifices. They should hold the ability to really warrant all the authorities norms sing the minute points like waste coevals and hazard safety factors. They should hold particular anthropometric specifications but they should non utilize excessively much of infinite. So, as we come to reason this, we can really see that several issues are acquiring solved in this context. Several designers are coming up with advanced thoughts to really provide to the thoughts of the authorities and the environmental impact assessment organic structures to do a statement sing this affair. So allow us trust for a hassle free and green hereafter in front! ! ! Mentions: History Of Architecture by Sir Bannister Fletcher Construction Delaies: Extension Of clip and protraction claims by Roger Gibson How to cite The Nature of Construction Problems: Past and Present, Essay examples

Baseball V/S Softball free essay sample

Baseball V/S Softball If you have ever watched a game of baseball or a game of softball they can seem like a very similar sport. The more you go into detail with these two sports you can see how different from each other they really are. In these two sports you have three main aspects you can compare and contrast: pitching, the field and regulations, and hitting. There are more detailed areas you could compare and contrast, but these are the most common. When it comes to pitching in softball and baseball you will be able to spot the difference right away. Pitchers in baseball throw the baseball over hand while softball players throw the softball underhand. Since softball players throw softballs underhand there is a difference in the pitching rules of baseball and softball. Softball players do not a have a regulation on how many innings they can throw, while baseball players have a limit of how many innings they are allowed to throw. We will write a custom essay sample on Baseball V/S Softball or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This rule was established because throwing overhand takes a huge toll on the arm, while throwing underhand is more of a natural motion. The similarity between these two sports is the way pitches are called, balls and strikes, and hits and walks determine both sports and the outcome in the end. Now when it comes down to the field they may look very similar, but in their own little way they are different. For instance a softball field has an all dirt infield while a baseball field is half dirt and half grass or all grass. When it comes to the technical part of the field you have distances from base to base and distance from the mound to home. In baseball it is 90 ft from base to base and it is 60ft from the mound to home, while in softball it is 60 ft from base to base and 43 ft from the mound to home. The over all design of the field is the same with foul poles in left and right field and with chalk marking the foul lines and batters box. The third and final aspect is hitting and in both softball and baseball you use a metal bat to hit the baseball or softball. Now the mechanics of a baseball swing compared to a softball swing are a little different. A softball swing is a more level swing while a baseball swing has a little bit of a dip in it. The reason the swings are different is the way the ball is delivered. A baseball is delivered on a downward angle and a softball is delivered on an upward angle giving cause the two different types of swings. Hitting probably has the most similarities out of all the aspects, where homeruns, hits, and runs are all accomplished the same way. Baseball and softball are so very similar in the way the game is played but when you break it down to different aspects of the game you can find differences in the way you hit, throw, or how the field is set up. Baseball is Americas past time and softball is jus a resemblance so women could take part in the past time. At the end of the day baseball and softball are two sports that are so similar but yet so different.